Education for Sustainable Development (ESD)

Education for Sustainable Development (ESD)

By: Estanislao Mejia

Education for Sustainable Development (ESD)

What is ESD?

            “Education is the most powerful weapon you can use to change the world.” (Nelson Mandela.) 

            Education is important  to sustainable development. We need to learn and internalize the ways and means to sustainability. Education is the medium to attain this program of development. However, our knowledge through the present education system does not always contain the solutions to contemporary global, environmental, societal and economic problems. Thus, today’s education is crucial to the ability of present and future leaders and citizens to create solutions and find new paths to a better future.

            “The provision of basic education is no longer enough; what is considered ideal is education oriented towards creating social, economic and environmental consciousness in students.”[1]

The Southeast Asian region boasts of vibrant cultural diversity, cheerful people, and breathtaking natural wonders. But modernization has put the region’s present society, economy, and environment at risk, threatening the inheritance of both present and future generations. To address the situation, sustainable development as a framework needs to be adopted in order to influence values, interactions, and general ways of living. As a proven empowering mechanism, education is heralded as one of the armors against the uncertainties of the future.[2]

            All across Southeast Asia, the paradigm of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) has permeated discourses on enhancing education for national development. Governments, education providers, and education advocates have all recognized the potency of education in safeguarding the future, and are using it to inculcate the principles of sustainable development into the learning experiences of young people.[3]

            ESD has vital functions that can be realized and applied to different societies. Education for sustainable development is based on the principles and values that underlie sustainable development. This deals with the four dimensions of sustainability – environment, society, culture and economy. This program uses a variety of pedagogical ( strategies of instructions) techniques that promote participatory learning (interactive, student-center education)  and higher-order thinking skills (HOTS) and promotes lifelong learning (experiential knowledge) . Moreover, it assures local relevance and culture appropriate. It is based on local needs, perceptions and conditions, yet acknowledges that fulfilling local needs often has international effects and consequences. Nevertheless, ESD engages formal, non-formal and informal education. It accommodates the evolving nature of the concept of sustainability. Aside from those mentioned above, it addresses local and global issues. ESD builds civil capacity for community-based decision-making, social tolerance, environmental stewardship, adaptable workforce, and a good quality of life.[4]

           

            These important characteristics of ESD can be implemented in many different ways, so that ESD programmes reflect the unique environmental, social, cultural and economic conditions of each locality. Furthermore, ESD increases civil capacity by enhancing and improving society, through a combination of formal, non-formal and informal education.

            We are drowned to the ideas of ESD. We know that development is good and vital for the future generation to preserve our culture. The question is how? It is not a question o what and why on ESD. 

We look at ESD as a complex and evolving subject.  How it is applied and implemented is a challenge for all countries. Organizations, local communities and individuals can be actors within the global movement for sustainable development. To support the growing interest in ESD, there are programs of good practices and shared experiences, which were provided by a range of different stakeholders, and concrete examples of successful implementation of ESD in different fields and sectors, from the political to the school level, and including formal, non-formal and informal learning situations.[5]

            The concept of sustainable development was described by the 1987 Bruntland Commission Report as “development that meets the needs of the present without

compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”[6]

            Any development that compromise the future generation is not really a sustainable development. For example, the excessive cutting of trees for the purpose of building houses and classrooms, mining industries for creating more job opportunities, the “kaingin” system for small scale agriculture, converting mangrove forests to fishpond industries, using more vehicles for transportation, and many other acts of development are not really a development that sustain the society for the future generation.   

II. Incorporating ESD in High School Curriculum

            There is a vital need to integrate ESD in High School Curriculum globally.  We have said above that education is a weapon to change the world, and a medium to attain our purpose – the sustainable future. It is good enough to start the integration of ideas about ESD in the high school curriculum because it is in this phase that the students are very curious about the self, the society, the economy, and the environment. This is the level of education where the students are in the stage of cognizing the reality beyond his or her existence.

            All sustainable development programs must consider the three spheres of sustainability – environment, society and economy – as well as an underlying dimension of culture.[7]Therefore, in the process of incorporating ESD in the curriculum we have to consider these important spheres of sustainability.  These concepts of sustainability are quiet concise and apprehendable by the young minds. We have said above, in order

ESD be applicable and be effective it should assure local relevance and culture appropriate. It should be based on local needs, perceptions and conditions, but acknowledges that there will be a global effects and consequences.

            The ideals and principles that underlie sustainability include broad concepts such as equity among generations, gender equity, peace, tolerance, poverty reduction, environmental preservation and restoration, natural resource conservation, and social justice. The Rio Declaration[8] contains 27 principles, including: People are entitled to a healthy and productive life in harmony with nature; The right to development must be fulfilled so as to meet developmental and environmental needs of present and future generations in an equitable way; Eradicating poverty and reducing disparities in living

standards in different parts of the world, are essential to sustainable development. Environmental protection is an integral part of the development process and cannot be considered in isolation from it.[9]

            These broad concepts are hard to be internalized and difficult to deal with social generalizations.  Thus, incorporating ESD in high school curriculum needs to be simple and applicable to the level of locality and culture. More types of learning [have] evolved since ESD is being taught in different levels of schools, high schools, vocational and technical schools. Sometimes ESD is being taught through different projects which combine different types of learning, and connect more than one subject area.

            According to the authorities and advocates of ESD, first thing to do  is reorienting curriculum to address sustainability.[10] This points out the methodologies and pedagogies of teaching process. This has to do with the three pillars of education: learning to know, learning to do, learning to live together, and learning to be. It  is needed in the incorporation of ESD in the school level. This can take place at a classroom or national level. At the classroom level, teachers can begin by explicitly stating the link between the topic in the mandated syllabus and sustainability.

To reorient a curriculum to address sustainability, educational communities need to identify the knowledge, issues, perspectives, skills, and values central to sustainable development in each of the three components of sustainability – environment, society, and economy – and integrate them into the curriculum. The education community also needs to decide which of the many existing sustainability issues (e.g. biodiversity, climate change, equity, and poverty) will be part of the curriculum. Ideally, efforts to reorient education will be based on national or local sustainability goals. A properly reoriented curriculum will address local environmental, social, and economic contexts to ensure that it is locally relevant and culturally appropriate.[11]

A. Reorienting Curriculum to Address Sustainability

            Reorienting education involves selecting appropriate knowledge, issues, skills, perspectives, and values for the environmental, social, and economic spheres of sustainability.

Knowledge

People need basic knowledge from the natural sciences, social sciences, and humanities to understand:

- the principles of sustainable development,

- how they can be implemented,

- the values involved, and

- the ramifications of their implementation.

Skills

- ESD must provide people with the practical skills that will enable them to:

- continue learning after they leave school,

- to find a sustainable livelihood, and

- to live sustainable lives.

Examples:

The ability to communicate effectively both orally and in writing;

The ability to think about systems (both natural and social sciences);

The ability to think in terms of time – to forecast, to think ahead, and to plan;

The ability to think critically;

The ability to use multiple perspectives to understand another person’s viewpoint;

The ability to analyse values underlying differing positions;

The capacity to move from awareness to knowledge to action;

The ability to work cooperatively with other people;

 The capacity to develop an aesthetic response to the environment and the arts.

Issues

Every community has sustainability issues. Reorienting education includes selecting issues that are relevant to the local community. Here are a few of many possible issues:

Agriculture

Atmosphere

Biodiversity

Changing consumption patterns

Climate Change

Deforestation

Desertification and drought

Fresh water

Gender equity

Human settlement

Indigenous people

Land use

Oceans

Population growth

Poverty

Protecting and promoting human health

Solid and hazardous wastes and sewage

Perspectives

Perspectives on sustainability are commonly statements that expand upon the principles of sustainable development found in Agenda 21. Principles include, but are not limited to:

- Environmental protection and human-centred development are considered together, not separately.

- There must be a balance and integration of environment, society, and economy.

- States have a right to development, but must respect geographic boundaries.

- Partnerships can achieve more than solitary action.

- Social and environmental problems change through time and have both a history and            a future.

- Contemporary global environmental issues are linked and interrelated.

- Systems thinking or a whole-systems approach should be used in problem solving      rather than looking at problems in        isolation.

-  Humans have universal attributes.

- The family is the foundational social unit.

- Local issues must be understood in a global context and we should realize that            solutions to local problems can have global

            consequences.

- Individual consumer decisions and other actions affect and give rise to resource          extraction and manufacturing in distant    places.

- Differing views should be considered before reaching a decision or judgement.

- Economic values, religious values, and societal values compete for importance as

people with different interests and backgrounds interact.

- Technology and science alone cannot solve all of our problems.

- Individuals are global citizens in addition to being citizens of the local community.

- Communities are built for all people regardless of income, ethnicity, status, etc.

- Community and governmental decision-making must include public participation.       People whose lives will be affected by decisions must be involved in the process leading to the decisions.

- Transparency and accountability in governmental decision-making are essential.

- The decentralization of governmental decision-making allows people to find solutions            that fit local environmental, social, and economic contexts.

- Employing the precautionary principle – taking action to avoid the possibility of serious           or irreversible environmental or social harm, especially when scientific knowledge is incomplete or inconclusive – is necessary for the long-term well-being of a            community and our planet.           

Values

Understanding values (e.g. one’s own values, the values of the society one lives in, and the values of others around the world) is an essential part of understanding one’s own and other people’s viewpoints. Values from the Earth Charter include:

- Respect the Earth and life in all its diversity.

- Care for the community of life with understanding, compassion, and love.

- Build democratic societies that are just, participatory, sustainable, and peaceful.

- Secure the Earth’s bounty and beauty for present and future generations.

- Eradicate poverty as an ethical, social, and environmental imperative.

- Affirm gender equality and equity.

- Uphold the right of all, without discrimination.

- Treat all living beings with respect and consideration.

- Promote a culture of tolerance, nonviolence, and peace

            Another point of view of ESD in incorporating in high school curriculum  is to look at it in the three pillars of development: economic development, social development, and environmental protection. Why is ESD especially important in Southeast Asia? Let us consider these facts.

           

            According to SEAMEO INNOTECH 2010, the cultural diversity is at its peak in the SEA region. Indonesia alone has more than 300 ethnic groups. The Philippines has almost 200. Of the world’s population, 8.52% (2008) or 576 million people call SEA home. This is up from 517 million in 2000 with an estimated 15 million increase to year 2010. From 1990 to 2000, SEA lost an average of 2.33 million hectares of forests per year, mostly in Indonesia, The Philippines, Thailand, Myanmar, and Malaysia. The proportion of the Southeast Asian population living in poverty has decreased from 39% in 1990 to 19% in 2005. Though this is marked improvement, around 112 million people are still poor and the gap between the rich and the poor is extremely wide. The net enrolment ratios in primary education from 93% in 1999 to 95% in 2008. But there are still more than 5 million illiterate youths. SEA is the most biodiverse regions in the world, with three of 17 biodiverse countries located in the area. The subregion also supports about half of the world’s terrestrial and marine biodiversity. Urban air quality is at hazardous levels as many countries exceed the World Health Organization prescribe 100 micrograms per cubic meter of total suspended particulates. The multiple cheap motorbikes in Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, Laos; the high energy demand in the Philippines; and poor industrial practices in much of the region all contribute towards global warming.[12] 

            These are some of the major issues why we need the urgent integration of ESD to school curriculum, especially in the SEA region.  Looking at this scenario, a leading ESD advocate Dr. Rosalyn McKeown relayed in her influential work Education for Sustainable Development Toolkit (2002) that ESD espouses four objectives.

           

            First is the promotion of basic education. Second is the reorienting the existing formal education system. Third is improving public understanding and awareness. Fourth is encouraging the training of citizens.

           

            The first component of ESD includes the skills for critical-thinking, organizing and interpreting information, formulation of questions, and analysis of issues affecting

communities. The second is reorienting the system towards  teaching and learning knowledge, skills, perspectives, and values that will encourage people to pursue sustainable livelihoods, participate in a democratic society, and live in a sustainable manner. The third is the understanding about sustainability to support policies and

programs initiated by governments, civil society, or international development organizations. The last is training of citizens in sector-specific sustainable practices and procedures.[13]

            How then can these prioritized objectives of ESD be achieved? Using education for sustainable development entails using the following learning components to contribute to students’ understanding and practice of sustainable development:

            There are the five channels through which the content and delivery of curricula can be shaped. Within the framework of ESD, these five learning components can be used to impart its themes. These concepts are also the same with the reorienting type of integrating ESD in high school curricula.

Knowledge is comprised of all the information from the natural sciences, social sciences, and humanities that will help students understand the overall concept of sustainable development, how it can be implemented, and the implications of the implementation.

Issues are the problems that affect the sustainability of the planet and that need to be resolved. Localizing the issues will make the practices of ESD more relevant and understandable to students.

Skills refer to the needed practical capacities which students can use outside of the classroom and even into adulthood to contribute to sustainability. These may include abilities to communicate effectively, to cooperate with others, to transition

from knowledge to action.

Perspectives are the specific viewpoints through which issues are understood and analyzed. Students need to at least familiarize themselves with the viewpoints of different actors or stakeholders as the negotiation of these sometimes conflicting views will serve as basis for cooperation

.

Values are the morals and ideals which a society holds essential in daily living and interaction. Different countries may differ in the values they choose to emphasize in schools, as shaped by their culture, history, and traditions.

           

B. Curriculum in the Secondary Level

            This is the overall plan for teaching. We understand curriculum as a school-based body of knowledge. This focuses on the content to be learned and applied by students. The attention of the teachers here is on what to put in the curriculum and how it is to be organized. We also learned that curriculum is a process. It focuses on the form, on the students experiences arising from their interaction with teachers and knowledge. It is the preparation, the doing, and evaluation of classroom activities. Moreover, curriculum is also understood as desired learning outcomes. This focuses on teaching outcomes. Instead of teaching means and content. In this, the attention is on the whole process of formulating objectives, selecting and prioritizing content. The last thing we knew about curriculum is that curriculum as context. The focus of this idea is the “hidden elements” that shape the curriculum . the attention is on the structural and socio-cultural processes that influence learning and the real(actually taught) vs. The formal(proposed) curriculum.[14]

            On the other hand SEAMEO INNOTECH propose a concise concept of curriculum for the ESD program in secondary level, taking from Teaching and Learning for a Sustainable Future: A Multimedia Teacher Education Programme. This is a holistic model of the school curriculum. This captures all the elements that shape the educational experience in schools. It is within this “universe” or “domain” that the ESD framework is to be infused, its specific modalities integrated into curriculum elements. The curriculum is the ideal platform through which the seeds for a sustainable future can be sown because it is a formally recognized mechanism that guides the learning experience and the actions of those who will inherit the future.[15]

These are:     Interdisciplinary Learning

                        Action projects

                        Community Knowledge

                        Team Projects

                        Resource Use

                        Teaching and Learning Method

                        School Grounds

                        Democratic Practices

                        Knowledge and values

                        Students Club

                        School Calendar

                       

III. Case Studies

           

            Where would one expect to see evidence of specific ESD-related contents in the curriculum of primary and secondary schools?

......environmental education or climate change education, one could expect to find instructional time allocated to the environmental sciences in courses pertaining to natural sciences, geography or social studies

.....contents in other required or elective school subjects, both those with conventional labels (e.g., social studies, civics, citizenship education, social sciences, moral education) as well as those with less conventional ones (e.g., peace education, human rights education, global citizenship education, HIV/AIDS education, multicultural education).

.......Environmental topics are incorporated in the school curriculum in several different ways. By far, most material about environmental science is taught as part of natural science courses--for example, in courses on biology, chemistry, physics, earth science, or within an integrated science course. Among OECD countries, on average, 94% of students attend schools that teach environmental science this way, according to the reports of school principals

....As the above makes clear, many more countries are including ESD-related topics in their primary and (lower) secondary school curricula. At the same time, the forms, formats and extent of this inclusion vary both across and within regions. Heterogeneity is indeed the norm. Examples of this can be seen in East Asia and Latin America. A recent study of seven East Asian countries (Cambodia, China, Japan, Malaysia, Philippines, Republic of Korea, and Thailand) found that, “in six of the seven cases, the core approach to ESD inclusion in the national curriculum is by including sustainable development thematic topics in the teaching of traditional subjects” (Didham & Ofei-Manu, 2012, p. 72). Additionally,

“While some countries also have curriculum mandates for aspects such as integrated learning hours (in Japan) or creative experiential learning activities (in Korea) where ESD is often selected as a topic of instruction, it is only in Thailand where there is a clear distinction that ESD should be included through multiple approaches” (Didham & Ofei-Manu, 2012, p. 72).

A. The Relevance of Social Studies in promoting ESD ( Case Studies in Southeast Asian Countries)

            In its broadest sense, social studies is said to encompass the preparation of young people to imbibe the knowledge, skills, and values requisite for active participation in society.[16] In addition, social studies is perceived to contribute to the democratization of citizens by teaching students to think critically and logically in dealing with social, economic, political, and environmental issues.[17] The National Council for the Social Studies, a premiere membership-based organization for social studies in the United States of America, puts forward the following definition.[18]

“Social studies is the integrated study of the social sciences and humanities studies provides coordinated, systematic study drawing upon such disciplines as anthropology, archaeology, economics, geography, history, law, philosophy, political science, psychology, religion, and sociology, as well as appropriate content from the humanities, mathematics, and natural sciences. The primary purpose of social studies is to help young people develop the ability to make informed and reasoned decisions for the public good as citizens of a culturally diverse, democratic society in an interdependent world.”

While social studies curriculum may cover a wide spectrum of disciplines, some key themes thread through them which provide an organizing framework for curriculum design and development.[19]

	Time, Continuity, and Change	Production, Distribution, and Consumption	Global Connection
Civic Ideals And Practices	Themes in Social Studies Curriculum			Culture
People, Places and Environment				Individuals, Groups, and Institutions
	Science, Technology, and society	Individual Development, and Identity	Power, Authority, and Governance

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Figure 1

+ Themes from the National Council for the Social Studies

Brief Descriptions of the themes

1. Time, Continuity, and Change

Studying the past allows students to understand human development – its changes and continuities – across time. Encouraging the examination of history will point to continuities in social institutions, values, ideals, and traditions, as well as processes that may have caused changes in them and resulted in new ideas, values, and ways of life. To interpret the past, these

questions can be asked in class:

• How do we learn about the past?

• What are the roots of our social, political, and economic systems?

• Why is the past important to us today?

• How has the world changed and how might it change in the

future?

• How do perspectives about the past differ, and to what extent do these differences inform contemporary ideas and actions?

By learning about time, continuity, and change, students develop skills to piece together historical information and to make informed choices influenced by past events or situations.

______________________________________________________________________

2. Production, Distribution, and Consumption

Material wants often exceed the finite resources available for these to be produced. Resources are increasingly distributed unequally, and this necessitates national and global systems of exchange to improve the wellbeing of the economy. The role of government in economic policy-making is ever evolving, with countries becoming more economically interdependent, and technology playing a major role in this interdependence for economic growth. Students need to be aware of these realities and be prepared to answer the following questions:

• What factors influence decision-making on issues of the

            production, distribution, and consumption of goods?

• What are the best ways to deal with market failures?

• How is interdependence brought on by globalization?

• How does globalization impact local economies and social

            systems?

Students are expected to develop their critical thinking while learning about this theme, especially as they are tasked to gather and analyze data, including technical economic information. Their perspectives and values-formation are also expected to broaden as they come across contemporary problems of resource scarcity.

3. Global Connections

Global connections refer to the intensifying linkages between and among local, national, and international institutions in the social, political, and economic realms. Students need to learn how and why these linkages came about, and the opportunities and threats that global interrelationships induce. Students confront such questions as:

• What are the different types of global connections?

• What global connections have existed in the past, exist currently,

            and are likely to persist in the future?

• How do ideas spread among societies in today’s interconnected

            world and what changes do these bring?

• What are the benefits from, and problems associated with, global

            interdependence?

• How should people and societies balance global connectedness

            with local needs?

Analyzing the rationale, the costs, and the benefits of increased global interdependence will equip students with skills to examine public policies and alternatives that create both national and global implications. This theme usually emerges in courses on geography, economics, history, political science, government and technology, among others. Broader issues such as peace, conflict, poverty, disease, human rights, trade, and global ecology should ideally be introduced through this theme.

4. Culture

Integrating cultural themes means examining beliefs, values, institutions, behaviors, traditions, and ways of life of groups of people that have been socially transmitted through time and generations. Students learn that similarities and differences define cultures, and grow to understand multiple perspectives of this cultural multiplicity. Some questions which the teacher could ask the students include:

• What is culture?

• What roles does culture play in human and societal development?

• What are the common characteristics across cultures?

• What is the role of diversity and how is it maintained within a culture?

• How do various aspects of culture such as belief systems, religious faith, or political ideals    influence other parts of a culture such as institutions of literature, music, and art?

Culture as a theme is intertwined in discussions of geography, history, sociology, anthropology, and other multicultural topics in social studies.

5. Individuals, Groups, and Institutions

Institutions refer to the formal and informal political, economic, and social organizations that help us carry out, organize, and manage our daily affairs. These include schools, religious institutions, families, government agencies, and the judicial courts and their roles in daily human life. They are organizational representations of core social values and shape the ways individuals socialize and meet their needs. Additionally, institutions promote societal continuity, mediate conflicts, and discuss and act upon public issues. The following are some questions that can be asked for students to understand institutions:

• How are our institutions formed?

• What is the role of institutions in the society?

• How am I personally influenced by institutions?

• How do institutions change?

• What is my role in institutional change?

In learning about themselves and institutions, students should be able to understand how they can participate more effectively in their relationship with core social institutions.

6. Power, Authority, and Governance

To develop civic competence, students need to learn about the foundations of political thought and the historical development of various structures of power, authority, and governance. Knowledge about the evolving functions of these power structures in their respective contemporary societies and in those in other parts of the world have to be learned. Different government systems are studied to understand how different nations resolve conflicts and seek to establish order and security. Exploring this theme will encourage student to answer questions such as:

• What are the purposes and functions of government?

• Under what circumstances is the exercise of political power legitimate?

• What are the proper scope and limits of authority?

• How are individual rights protected and challenged within the context of different government             forms?

• What conflicts exist among fundamental principles and values of constitutional democracy?

• What are the rights and responsibilities of citizens in a constitutional democracy?

Teachers may already be discussing the contents of this theme in courses dealing with government, politics, political science, civics, history, law, and other areas of social studies. From an exposure to this theme, students are expected to develop a comprehensive awareness of rights and responsibilities in specific contexts.

7. Individual Development and Identity

Identity is shaped by an individual’s culture, groups, institutional influences, and by lived experiences shared with people throughout her or his personal development. Students, especially in the secondary education levels, need to become aware of the processes of learning, growth, and interaction in experiences within and outside of the school setting. Questions related to individual development and identity include the following:

• How do individuals grow and change physically, emotionally and intellectually?

• Why do individuals behave as they do?

• What influences how people learn, perceive, and grow?

• How do people meet their basic needs in a variety of contexts?

• How do individuals develop over time?

• How do social, political, and cultural interactions support the development of identity?

• How are development and identity defined at other times and in other places?

8. Science, Technology, and Society

Even prior to recordings of human evolution, science and technology have greatly shaped social and cultural change and people’s interaction with the world. Students will have to think about the following questions as:

• What can we learn about how new technologies result in broader social change, some of      which are unanticipated?

• Is new technology always better than that which it replaces?

• How can we cope with the ever-increasing pace of change, perhaps even with the concern   that technology might get out of control?

• How can we preserve fundamental values and beliefs in a world that is rapidly becoming one             technology-linked village?

• How can gaps in access to benefits of science and technology be bridged?

While there are dedicated courses to this theme, topics and issues related to science, technology and society could also come up in lessons on history, geography, economics, civics, and government. Students at the secondary school level are expected to learn about dealing with the Internet age, ethics and technology and the other scientific and technological implications on beliefs, quality of life, and values.

9. People, Places, and Environments

Students should understand the interrelationship between human populations and the physical world. The influence of physical systems (such as climate, weather, and seasons) and natural resources (such as land and water) on human populations is examined. Lessons also should tackle why human activities, such as settlement and migration, emerge and how these create wide-reaching effects. Some questions to be answered include:

• Why do people decide to live where they do or move to other places?

• Why is location important?

• How do people interact with the environment and what are some of the consequences           of those             interactions?

• What physical and other characteristics lead to the creation of regions?

• How do maps, globes, geographic tools, and geospatial technologies contribute to the             understanding of people, places, and environments?

Studying the links between people, places, and environments will ideally draw students’ interests towards responding to the misuse of the physical environment.

10. Civic Ideals and Practices

One major purpose of education is to prepare students for citizenship, or participation in the broader setting outside of the school. Learning about and applying civic ideals and practice pursues the greater goal of the common good. Students need to be exposed not only to their own society’s ideals and practices, but also to those valued in other countries. Important questions that need focus are:

• What are the ideals and practices important in our society? In other societies?

• What is the role of the citizen in the community and in the nation, and as a member of the     world community?

• What is civic participation?

• What is the balance between rights and responsibilities?

Students are expected to learn how to analyze issues through different points of view. They should also be exposed to ongoing community services, their benefits, and how to participate in them.

B. ESD in the Secondary School Social Studies Curricula in Southeast Asia

According to the UNESCO ESD Sourcebook (UNESCO 2012), whole-school approaches usually contain the following components:

·         The formal curriculum contains knowledge, Issues, skills, perspectives and values related to sustainability.

·         Learning includes real-life issues to enhance pupils’ motivation and learning.

·         The school has a sustainability ethos, which can be seen in the treatment of others, school property, and the environment.

·         School management practices reflect sustainability.

·         School policies reflect environmental, social, and economic sustainability.

·         Interactions between the school and community are fostered.

·         Special events and extra-curricular activities apply and enhance classroom learning about sustainability.

·         Pupils engage in decision-making affecting school life.

           

            The following tables and figures presents some of the Southeast Asian Countries’ respective social studies curricula to give us a better understanding and enable us to visualize the concept of the social studies curriculum. It is followed by tables of the progress in integrating ESD into secondary school social studies curriculum that varies across the Southeast Asian region. The differences are herein summarized from country reports presented during the SEAMEO Regional Research Workshop on Integrating Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) Concepts in the Southeast Asian Social Studies Secondary Education Curriculum. The workshop, which was held from 28-30 April 2010 at SEAMEO INNOTECH in the Philippines, had education practitioners, policymakers, curriculum specialists, and head teachers of social studies at the secondary education level as participants.[20]

Secondary School Social Studies Curriculum in Singapore[21]

SINGAPORE
SUBJECT	CONTENT
Lower Secondary Subjects Geography, History, Literature in English, Visual arts and Music	·         Geography Introducing to geography, Understanding the environment, the Physical environment, the Human environment, Managing the changing environment
Upper Secondary Subjects Combined Humanities	·         Social Studies Journey to nationhood, Growth of Singapore, Governing Singapore, Living in peace and harmony, Managing our environment, Staying competitive in the 21st Century
Upper Secondary Electives Geography, History, Literature in English, Literature in Chinese, Arts & Design, Music, Elements of Office Administration	·         History Ancient India, Southeast Asia and China, History of Singapore

SINGAPORE
Progress of ESD Integration	Good Practices
ESD concepts integrated in social studies curriculum under core ideas of “Being Rooted” and “Living Global”	·         Promotion of the value of conservation through the Schools Green Audit Awards since 2000 ·         Promotion of greener transportation modes (Green Transport Week) ·         Promotion of green consumerism (Green Labelling Scheme) ·         Free nature walks ·         Happy Toilet program ·         Appointment of Environment Champions and water Ambassadors

MALAYSIA
SUBJECT	CONTENT
·         Lower Secondary School History Geography Civics and Citizenship Education Moral Education Basic Economics ·         Upper Secondary School History Geography Civics and Citizenship Education Moral Education Basic Economics	• History: Pre-historical period and the glory of the Malay Sultanate, Formation of Malaysia, the Nation’s wealth and prosperity leading to colonization, Human pre-civilization, Nation building towards emerging Malaysia’s sovereignty, Malaysia and the international communities cooperation • Geography: Relief features and their potential, Weather and climate, Natural vegetation and wildlife, Population dynamics and its implications, Settlement, Transportation and communication network • Civics and Citizenship Education: Self-accomplishment, Family relationship, Living in society, Malaysian cultural heritage, Diversity, Malaysia’s sovereignty and future challenge • Moral Education: Self development, Family, Environment, Patriotism, Human rights, Democracy, Peace and harmony • Basic Economics: Introduction to economics, Income and use of individual income, Household as a consumer, Firm as a market, Money and financial institution, the Malaysian economy

MALAYSIA
Progress of ESD Integration	Good Practices
• Establishment of Environmental    Education Learning Stations • Student-centered teaching and    learning methods • Environmental Awareness Camp • River Watch Program • Environmental Cadets/Brigade • Environmental Awareness   Workshop • Support of civil society and business   sector to schools’ environmental   education	• Establishment of Environmental   Education Learning Stations • Student-centered teaching and   learning methods • Environmental Awareness Camp • River Watch Program • Environmental Cadets/Brigade • Environmental Awareness Workshop • Support of civil society and business   sector to schools’ environmental   education
THAILAND
SUBJECT	CONTENT
Lower Secondary Level	Geography, Social and cultural condition, Population and environment, Economy
SOC 101 Our Country II	History and the development of the Thai nation, Roles and duties of families and communities in a democratic society
SOC 102 Our Country II	Natural environment, Social and cultural conditions of various regions in Asian continent, Economic and political group of Asian countries, their problems, and relationships
SOC 203 Our Continent	Natural environment, Social and cultural conditions of various regions in Asian continent, Economic and political group of Asian countries, their problems, and relationships
SOC 204 Our Country III	Thai history of Sri Ayutthaya period, Rights and duties of citizens, Moral education, System of government and the monarchy
SOC 305 Our World	Natural environment, Social and cultural conditions of important regions of the world, Economic and political issues concerning Thailand
SOC 306 Our Country IV	Thai history of Thonburi and Rattanakosin periods, Democracy, Religious principles and civic education
Upper Secondary Level
SOC 401 Social Studies	Concept of society, Thai society, Thai religion, Social changes
SOC 402 Social Studies	Concept of politics, Thai politics, Legal knowledge and civic education
SOC 503 Social Studies	Geography, Natural resources, Population, occupations, adaptation to the environment
SOC 504 Social Studies	Economic principles and activities of various regions of Thailand, Local and national economic development, problems and solutions, Relationship between Thai and World economic conditions
SOC 605 Social Studies	Socio-cultural, economic, political changes
SOC 606 Social Studies	Academic and technological progress, International politics, economic competitions and coordination, Impact of world population quality improvement toward Thailand

THAILAND
Progress of ESD Integration	Good Practices
• ESD blueprint integrated in the   national 10th Economic and Social   Development Plan 2007-2016 • Idea of sustainable development   also guided by relevant tenets from   Buddhism • ESD concepts integrated into the   following subjects: religion, morality   and ethics; civics, culture   and living; economics; history;   geography	• Sufficiency Economy School Project • Strengthening Environmental   Education in Thailand Project • Participatory Learning Leading to   Community Development • Schools Ecological Footprint   Challenge • Buddhist-Oriented Schools Project • Youth Local History Research   Project • Plant Genetic Conservation Project

The Philippines
SUBJECT	CONTENT
1st Year High School History and Philippine Government	History, geography and Philippine civilization; Development of Filipino consciousness; Independence and freedom; Government, Constitutional Law and Citizenship
2nd Year High School Study of Asian Countries	Geography and Asian civilization; Asian identity; Transformation of Asia; Government, culture and society of Asia
3rd Year High School World History	Geography and world civilization; Development of world consciousness; Progress of ideologies towards transformation; World unity
4th Year High School Economics	Sources of wealth and economic growth; People and the problem of poverty; Economic governance; Globalization and economic issues

The Philippines
Progress of ESD Integration	Good Practices
• ESD integration into social studies   curriculum mandated in   Department of Education policies   (Memorandum n.483 s. 2004; Order   23 s. 2005; Order 61 s. 1987) • Inclusion of human rights, peace   education, gender equality has also   been mandated in policies	• Development of modules and   Teaching exemplars on ESD concepts • Capacity-building for integration of   ESD concepts • Policy issuances in support of   environmental protection • Partnership building of multiple   stakeholders • Organization of networking   opportunities

ESD Implementation in Kesennuma City, Japan

            Today, the city is known as one of the models for the implementation of ESD in Japan. It has developed ESD originally focusing on environmental education. The city‟s engagement has been contributing to offer a model of ESD activities to other schools in Japan.[22]

            In Kesennuma City ESD has been implemented in many schools, from pre-school to high school levels supported by Kesennuma City Board of Education. Below shows the implementation system across different sectors in Kesennuma City. The strategies to promote ESD implementation have been developed in the city by: (1) Strengthening vertical and horizontal links among different educational levels, (2) Establishing partnerships with organization outside of schools, (3) Developing the curriculums, and (4) Building support systems.

Source*  Kesennuma City Board of Education, 2009, p.4 as of Watanabe, Rin ,  Implementation of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) in Japan: A qualitative case study of formal education in Kesennuma City,

            Vertical and horizontal links among different educational levels  in Kesennuma City, vertical and horizontal links among elementary, junior high and high schools have been built. Through developing long-term and continuous ESD projects from primary education to secondary education, it aims to develop and educate future leaders (Kesennuma City Board of Education, 2009). For example, Omose Elementary School, Omose Junior High School and Kesennuma High School have conducted international environmental education programs together with schools in the United States. Through such partnerships, learning of ESD could become both continuous and systematic from the elementary to the high school level .

Below shows what kind of abilities and competencies should be fostered through different learning approaches at each level.

(Elementary School A) Kesennuma City, Japan

Program	Environmental education: oyster farming
Aims	·         To learn about the fishing industry to further develop towards a sustainable local industry through hands-on activities focused on oyster farming.
Abilities to be fostered	·         To understand the fishing industry and its relationship with nature. ·         To understand ways to protect the nature. ·         Attitude to be grateful for the cooperation of all the people who enable learning. ·         Ability to disseminate information and express their feelings of appreciation.
Evaluation	Viewpoint: ·         Ability to identify issues, gather information, solve problems, think critically and the attitude to tackle issues proactively or cooperatively. Methods: Observations by the teachers, peer evaluation, and portfolios including reports, worksheets and compositions.
Challenges	·         To improve the ESD curriculum with an awareness of connections with other subjects. ·         To develop students‟ abilities to put things into practice. ·         To seek full shared understanding of ESD within the school. ·         To strengthen cooperation with experts. ·         To advance exchange activities at regional, national and international levels.
Characteristics	·         Taking advantage of the local industry and the rich natural environment. ·         Hands-on activities collaborating with the local residents and NPO

(Elementary School B) Kesennuma City, Japan

Program	Environmental education & DRR education focusing on writing activities
Aims	·         To foster the students‟ abilities to think independently and express themselves as well as the skills necessary for the future leaders who will contributes to building a sustainable society.
Abilities to be fostered	·         Ability to think critically. ·         Ability to anticipate the future and make plans for it.  ·         Ability to think multilaterally and comprehensively. ·         Ability to communicate. ·         Attitude of cooperating with others. ·         Attitude of respecting connections. ·         Attitude of participating proactively.
Evaluation	·         Focus on changes in the students “awareness in regard to the two themes through a survey about students” awareness and attitude. From the students‟ impressions, see changes in the students‟ behavior. ·         Carry out evaluations of the teachers to measure their awareness of ESD. ·         Disseminate information to the local community and ask them about their opinion on activities.
Challenges	·         To improve the study program systematically and link the content of each study. ·         To re-organize the coordination and cooperation with local human resources based on the study contents and aims. ·         To review the study content in relation to the learning environment that has been affected by the disaster.
Characteristics	·         The school has engaged in ESD actively and their activities offer models of ESD to other schools. ·         The school conducted their own research and survey on ESD. ·         Taking into consideration the framework by NIER (attitudes and abilities to be fostered in ESD). ·         Focus on developing abilities and attitudes rather than themes.

(Elementary School C) Kesennuma City, Japan

Program	Understanding local community fostering students‟ love in their hometown
Aims	·         To have students develop a real sense of the positive aspects of their hometown through interactions with local people, and foster in students an appreciation for the joy of work. ·         To foster in students a love of their hometown and its culture.
Abilities to be fostered	·         Problem-solving skills (improve them by developing the students‟ interests in people, nature, and society though experiential activities taking advantage of local materials, and then identifying problems to solve) ·         Ability to express themselves from their own perspective
Evaluation	Viewpoints:  ·         Uniqueness of the school‟s educational activities. ·         How the school respond to the hopes of     parents/guardians and the local community.             Method: ·         To give presentations to parents/guardians and the local people and get evaluations from them through comments and surveys.
Challenges	·         To deepen the current experimental activities.   ·         To continue to develop the activities while working to create new ties with the local people‟s successors.
Characteristics	·         Making the most use of local resources including nature, traditional culture and local people’s skills and knowledge. ·         The activity led to exchanges with people in other parts of Japan and abroad.

(Junior High School A): Disaster risk reduction education,  Kesennuma City, Japan

Program	DRR education fostering preparedness for natural disasters
Aims	·         To foster future leaders in disaster prevention and promote the development of the local community to become more resilient to natural disasters.
Abilities to be fostered	·         Necessary knowledge and understanding about mechanisms of disaster occurrence as well as how to respond when and after a natural disaster strikes. ·         Necessary judgment ability in case of natural disasters and skills to overcome the disasters. ·         A sense of mutual assistance, which is important in the case of disasters.
Evaluation	Viewpoints: ·         To deepen the knowledge and understanding of mechanisms of disasters as well as activities necessary to be taken in case of disasters. ·         To attain appropriate judgment skills required when a disaster happens and gain the necessary skills to protect themselves and their families afterward. ·         A sense of “mutual assistance”, which is important when and after a disaster happens. Method: ·         Observation of students‟ activities: evaluate the contents of  submitted reports.
Challenges	•     To improve the evacuation drills with people in the local community. •     To develop DRR education learning about public-help activities. •     To maintain the collaboration with the people in the local community. •     To keep the memory of the Great East Japan Earthquake alive by continuing DRR education programs.

(Junior High School B): Food Education,  Kesennuma City, Japan

Program	Food education through production, processing & consumption
Aims	·         To foster qualities and capacities that allows students to understand the importance of food and make efforts actively to keep their own health. ·         To nurture the students‟ willingness of learning about local products, raise their consciousness as a member of the local community as well as understand the local food culture.
Abilities to be fostered	·         Understanding of nutrition and eating habits which are necessary to maintain and improve both physical and mental health and growth, as well as essential abilities to manage their own health. ·         Attitude to willingly learn about the nature of food. ·         Good eating manners and hygiene management. ·         To foster desirable social relationships in an environment where students can enjoy meals together. ·         Attitude to value food through deepening the student‟s understanding and appreciation of various activities of the people involved in food production and preparation as well as the blessing of nature. ·         Understanding the characteristics of the local products and food culture as well as an attitude to willingly utilize local products and pass on food culture as a member of the local community.
Evaluation	Viewpoints: ·         To what extent students realize the importance of food and think about nutritional balance in eating. ·         Attitude to eat enjoyably keeping in mind good eating manners and hygiene. ·         Understanding of the meaningfulness of local production for local consumption and awareness of utilizing local food. ·         Attitude to respect nature and appreciation for those involved in food-related activities. ·         To what extent students raise their interests in and desire to think about various food-related issues. Method: n.d.
Challenges	·         Need to further develop the food education program by improving the quality of the soil in the school garden through the use of fertilizers made from kitchen leftovers etc., while directing the student‟s eyes to natural cycles.
Characteristics	·         The schools lunch time serves as one of the time periods for ESD learning. ·         While focusing on raising awareness of the importance of local food culture, the studies on food at both the national and international levels are also designed.

Values and Evaluation:

Ability to think critically

Ability to forecast the future plan

Ability to think in multifaceted and comprehensive ways

Ability to communicate

Attitude to cooperate with other people

Attitude to respect for connections

Attitude to participate willingly

The Competences

            This section describes the core competences in ESD for educators as required by the mandate of the Expert Group. The language of competences is widely used in educational documents, including the report to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) of the International Commission on Education for the Twenty first Century and the European Union recommendation on key competences for lifelong learning.

            There are different interpretations of the term “competences”; the following paragraphs identify the defining features of the way in which we use the term. The Competences in this document relate specifically to ESD rather than to education more generally. The Competences are presented in this document in a table followed by more detailed explanations. The column headings represent essential characteristics of ESD, namely:

a  A holistic approach, which seeks integrative thinking and practice;

b Envisioning change, which explores alternative futures, learns from the past and        inspires engagement in the present; and

c Achieving transformation, which serves to change in the way people learn and in the

            systems that support learning.

a Learning to know refers to understanding the challenges facing society both locally and globally and the potential role of educators and learners (The educator understands....);

b Learning to do refers to developing practical skills and action competence in relation to education for sustainable development (The educator is able to....);

c Learning to live together contributes to the development of partnerships and an appreciation of interdependence, pluralism, mutual understanding and peace (The educator works with others in ways that....);

d Learning to be addresses the development of one’s personal attributes and ability to

act with greater autonomy, judgement and personal responsibility in relation to sustainable development (The educator is someone who....).

Holistic approach

The holistic approach includes three interrelated components:

a Integrative thinking;

b Inclusivity;

c Dealing with complexities

             

Envisioning change: past, present and future

Envisioning change covers competences relating to three dimensions:

a Learning from the past;

b Inspiring engagement in the present;

c Exploring alternative futures.

            Learning from the past includes critical analysis and thorough understanding of past developments, including the root causes of those developments. It draws lessons through understanding both successes and failures in cultural, social, economic and environmental spheres.

            Active engagement in the present is crucial because of the urgency of the contemporary issues that face us. For example, our world is characterized by massive inequality, with millions living in poverty while others engage in unsustainable use of the planet’s resources exceeding the carrying capacity of natural systems and hence compromising their regenerative capacities. ESD should address the needs of all people in the present as well as those of future generations.

            Exploring alternative futures leads to the identification of new pathways as an important step towards sustainable development. This process draws upon scientific evidence, uncovers current beliefs and assumptions that underlie our choices and encourages creative thinking about a wide range of possibilities. Involving learners in creating visions for the future will highlight ways in which actions taken today contribute to or detract from preferred futures. This offers ownership, creativity, direction and energy that can motivate people to make more sustainable choices in the present. ESD should emphasize approaches that are intended to lead to positive futures for people and nature, rather than those that simply do less harm.

Achieving transformation: people, pedagogy and education systems

Achieving transformation covers competences that operate at three levels:

a Transformation of what it means to be an educator;

b Transformation of pedagogy, i.e., transformative approaches to teaching and learning;

c Transformation of the education system as a whole.

            Transformation of what it means to be an educator is necessary because education systems are composed of the people who work within them and a key to changing these systems will be educators who are able to change their own practice as critical reflective practitioners. The building of positive relationships between educators and learners is essential. This will require educators to present themselves as fallible human beings rather than people with all the answers. It also requires the ability to empathize with the views and situations of those they educate. Transformative pedagogy draws on the experience of learners and creates opportunities for participation and for the development of creativity, innovation and the capacity to imagine alternative ways of living. It encourages learners to reflect on the impact of their

everyday choices in terms of sustainable development.

            Transformation of education systems is essential because our current systems have not yet totally supported sustainable models of development. While the role of formal education is clearly valued by society, change is needed to ensure that the system provides education that predisposes learners to consider sustainability across their life choices. Such change cannot be achieved by educators, schools, Governments or others working alone. Educators are well placed to contribute to transforming the systems within which they work, but they will need critical competences such as understanding the need for transformation, an openness to change and a range of collaborative skills[23]

Refferences:

Atkin, J. M., and Karplus, R. 1962. Discovery or Invention? The Science

            Teacher 29: 45 – 47.

Bacani, Ramon C., (2010), Integrating Education for Sustainable Development into         Secondary Education Social Studies Curriculum in Southeast Asia : A Toolkit for          Educators, Curriculum Developers, and ESD Advocates (Online). Available: http://www.seameo-innotech.org (2015, December)    

Bybee, R. 1997. Achieving Scientific Literacy: From Purposes to Practices.

            Portsmouth, New Hampshire: Heinemann Educational Books.

Chantavanich, S. 2003. Culture of Peace and Migration Education: Integrating

            Migration Education into Secondary Social Science Curriculum in Thailand.

            Asian Research Center for Migration. Bangkok: UNESCO Bangkok.

ESD Consulting. Embedding Sustainable Development in the Curriculum,

            viewed on October 10, 2010,

            <http://www.lgec.org.uk/Resource-Centre/Sustainable-Developmentand-

            Further-Education>

Goulart, I. B. 2006. The Social Meaning of the Curriculum: A Re-reading of the

            Theme. In PRELAC Journal Regional Education Project for Latin America

            and the Caribbean.

Learning-Theories Knowledge Base and Webliography. 2008. Learning

            Theories and Models, viewed on November 17, 2010, <http://www.

            learning-theories.com>

McKeown, R. 2002. Education for Sustainable Development Toolkit version 2.

            Tennessee: Waste Management Research and Education Institution.

Ministry of Education Singapore. Normal Course Curriculum: Secondary

            Education, viewed on October 10, 2010, <http://www.moe.gov.sg/

            education/secondary/normal>

National Council for the Social Studies. 2008. Expectations of Excellence:

            Curriculum Standards for Social Studies, Draft Revision.

Parker, W.C. 2001. Social Studies in Elementary Education, 11th ed. New

            Jersey: Merrill Prentice Hall.

Ross, E. W. 2006. The Social Studies Curriculum: Purposes, Problems and

            Possibilities, 3rd ed. Albany: State University of New York.

SEAMEO INNOTECH, 2010,  Integrating Education for Sustainable Development into     Secondary Education Social Studies Curriculum in Southeast Asia: A Toolkit for           Educators, Curriculum Developers, and ESD Advocates, Available:      http://www.seameo-innotech.org pdf (December 2015)

SIREP Research Report: Integrating Education for Sustainable Development (ESD)        Concepts in the Southeast Asian Social Studies Secondary Education             Curriculum.

Teachers Borders. 2006. Curriculum Theories, viewed on October 5,

            2010, http://cnx.org/content/m13293/1.9/

UNESCO,(2015) Education for Sustainable Development , (Online). Available :             web:http://www.unesco.org/new (2015, December)

UNESCO, (2012) Education for Sustainable Development Good Practices in         Addressing Climate Change Education, 75352 Paris 07 SP, France,  (Online).      Available: web: www.unesco.org/education/desd (2015, December)

UNESCO,(2012)EducationforSustainableDevelopment:SOURCEBOOK,             Available:http://unesdoc.unesco.org. pdf (December 2015)

               

UNESCO. 2010.ESD Lens Review Tool 9 ESD integration in the curriculum. ESD Lens:             A Policyand Practice Reviewtool.Learning & Training Tools,No.2. Available:             http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0019/001908/190898e.pdf (December 2015)

United Nations Economic Commission for Europe Strategy for Education for       Sustainable Development, 2011, The Competences in Education for Sustainable           Development: Learning for the future: Competences in Education for Sustainable        Development, Geneva 10, Switzerland. Available: http://www.unece.org pdf   (December 2015)

Watanabe, Rin ,  Implementation of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) in     Japan: A qualitative case study of formal education in Kesennuma City, Spring          term 2015 (Stockholms Universitet, Institute of International Education             Department of Education, Masters Thesis)

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[1] Bacani, Ramon C., (2010), Integrating Education for Sustainable Development into Secondary Education Social Studies Curriculum in Southeast Asia : A Toolkit for Educators, Curriculum Developers, and ESD Advocates (Online). Available: http://www.seameo-innotech.org (2015, December)                    

[2] Ibid.

[3] Ibid.

[4] UNESCO(2015) Education for Sustainable Development , (Online). Available : web:http://www.unesco.org/new (2015, December)

[5] UNESCO (2012) Education for Sustainable Development Good Practices in Addressing Climate Change Education, 75352 Paris 07 SP, France,  (Online). Available: web: www.unesco.org/education/desd (2015, December)

[6]UNESCO(2012)EducationforSustainableDevelopment:SOURCEBOOK,Available:http://unesdoc.unesco.org. pdf (December 2015)

[7] Ibid. UNESCO(2012) Education for Sustainable Development: SOURCEBOOK

[8] The Rio Declaration emerged from the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, also called the Earth Summit, which was held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. A total of 172 governments participated, including 108 heads of state or government. Agenda 21 is the official document of the Earth Summit.

[9] Ibid. UNESCO(2012) Education for Sustainable Development: SOURCEBOOK

[10] UNESCO. 2010.ESD Lens Review Tool 9 ESD integration in the curriculum. ESD Lens: A Policy and PracticeReviewtool.Learning&TrainingTools,No.2.Available:http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0019/001908/190898e.pdf (December 2015)

[11] Ibid. UNESCO(2012) Education for Sustainable Development: SOURCEBOOK

[12] Sources: UNEP(2004) and Millennium Development Reports of 2005 and 2010

[13] Sources: Millennium Development Goals Report 2010 and UNEP Sustainable Development

Priorities for Southeast Asia

[14] SEAMEO INNOTECH, 2010,  Integrating Education for Sustainable Development into Secondary Education Social Studies Curriculum in Southeast Asia: A Toolkit for Educators, Curriculum Developers, and ESD Advocates, Available: http://www.seameo-innotech.org pdf (December 2015)

[15] Ibid.

[16] Ross, E. W. 2006. The Social Studies Curriculum: Purposes, Problems and

Possibilities, 3rd ed. Albany: State University of New York.

[17] Parker, W.C. 2001. Social Studies in Elementary Education, 11th ed. New Jersey: Merrill Prentice Hall.

[18] Ibid. SEAMEO INNOTECH, 2010

[19] Themes identified by the National Council for the Social Studies. Available: http://www.socialstudies.org/standards/ (December 2015)

[20] SIREP Research Report: Integrating Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) Concepts in the Southeast

Asian Social Studies Secondary Education Curriculum

[21] Ministry of Education Singapore. Normal Course Curriculum: Secondary Education, Available: http://www.moe.gov.sg/ education/secondary/normal (December 2015)

[22]  Watanabe, Rin ,  Implementation of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) in Japan: A qualitative case study of formal education in Kesennuma City, Spring term 2015 (Stockholms Universitet, Institute of International Education Department of Education, Masters Thesis)

[23] United Nations Economic Commission for Europe Strategy for Education for Sustainable Development, 2011, The Competences in Education for Sustainable Development: Learning for the future: Competences in Education for Sustainable Development, Geneva 10, Switzerland. Available: http://www.unece.org pdf (December 2015)